What is Cancer? Cancer begins, Cancer spreads, Types of cancer, Diagnosing,treated,What is oncology?What does the future hold for cancer treatment?

What is Cancer?

Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the body. Cancer develops when the body’s normal control mechanism stops working. Old cells do not die and instead grow out of control, forming new, abnormal cells. These extra cells may form a mass of tissue, called a tumor. Some cancers, such as leukemia, do not form tumors.

.Cancer begins

Cells are the basic units that make up the human body. Cells grow and divide to make new cells as the body needs them. Usually, cells die when they get too old or damaged. Then, new cells take their place.

Cancer begins when genetic changes interfere with this orderly process. Cells start to grow uncontrollably. These cells may form a mass called a tumor. A tumor can be cancerous or benign. A cancerous tumor is malignant, meaning it can grow and spread to other parts of the body. A benign tumor means the tumor can grow but will not spread.

Some types of cancer do not form a tumor. These include leukemias, most types of lymphoma, and myeloma.

Cancer spreads

As a cancerous tumor grows, the bloodstream or lymphatic system may carry cancer cells to other parts of the body. During this process, the cancer cells grow and may develop into new tumors. This is known as metastasis.

One of the first places a cancer often spreads is to the lymph nodes. Lymph nodes are tiny, bean-shaped organs that help fight infection. They are located in clusters in different parts of the body, such as the neck, groin area, and under the arms.

Cancer may also spread through the bloodstream to distant parts of the body. These parts may include the bones, liver, lungs, or brain. Even if the cancer spreads, it is still named for the area where it began. For example, if breast cancer spreads to the lungs, it is called metastatic breast cancer, not lung cancer.

Types of cancer

Doctors divide cancer into types based on where it begins. Four main types of cancer are:

·         Carcinomas. A carcinoma begins in the skin or the tissue that covers the surface of internal organs and glands. Carcinomas usually form solid tumors. They are the most common type of cancer. Examples of carcinomas include prostate cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, and colorectal cancer.

·         Sarcomas. A sarcoma begins in the tissues that support and connect the body. A sarcoma can develop in fat, muscles, nerves, tendons, joints, blood vessels, lymph vessels, cartilage, or bone. 

·         Leukemias. Leukemia is a cancer of the blood. Leukemia begins when healthy blood cells change and grow uncontrollably. The 4 main types of leukemia are acute lymphocytic leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, acute myeloid leukemia, and chronic myeloid leukemia.

·         Lymphomas. Lymphoma is a cancer that begins in the lymphatic system. The lymphatic system is a network of vessels and glands that help fight infection. There are 2 main types of lymphomas: Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma

Diagnosing cancer

Often, a diagnosis begins when a person visits a doctor about an unusual symptom. The doctor will talk with the person about his or her medical history and symptoms. Then the doctor will do various tests to find out the cause of these symptoms.

But many people with cancer have no symptoms. For these people, cancer is diagnosed during a medical test for another issue or condition.

Sometimes a doctor finds cancer after a screening test in an otherwise healthy person. Examples of screening tests include colonoscopy, mammography, and a Pap test. A person may need more tests to confirm or disprove the result of the screening test.

For most cancers, a biopsy is the only way to make a definite diagnosis. A biopsy is the removal of a small amount of tissue for further study. Learn more about making a diagnosis after a biopsy

Cancer treated

Treatment options depend on the type of cancer, its stage, if the cancer has spread and your general health. The goal of treatment is to kill as many cancerous cells while reducing damage to normal cells nearby. Advances in technology make this possible.

The three main treatments are:

·         Surgery: directly removing the tumor

·         Chemotherapy: using chemicals to kill cancer cells

·         Radiation therapy: using X-rays to kill cancer cells

 The same cancer type in one individual is very different from that cancer in another individual. Within a single type of cancer, such as breast cancer, researchers are discovering subtypes that each requires a different treatment approach.

What is oncology?

The branch of medicine dedicated to diagnosing, treating and researching cancer is known as oncology, while a physician who works in the field is called an oncologist. Some oncologists focus solely on particular cancer types or treatments. Depending on the type, stage and location of a cancer, multiple oncology specialists may be involved in a patient’s care. The field of oncology has three main specialties—medical, surgical and radiation—and numerous sub-specialties.

A medical oncologist is a licensed physician (typically in internal medicine) trained in diagnosing, staging and treating cancer. This specialist also leads the development of the cancer patient’s treatment plan, which may include surgery, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, targeted therapy or hormone therapy, while also coordinating with other oncology specialists and clinicians who may have a role in the patient’s care. A medical oncologist is also the doctor a cancer patient will continue to see after treatment, for checkups over the long-term.

A surgical oncologist is a surgeon who specializes in performing biopsies and removing cancerous tumors and surrounding tissue, as well as other cancer-related operations.

A radiation oncologist specializes in treating cancer with radiation therapy to shrink or destroy cancer cells or to ease cancer-related symptoms.

Many cancer types are treated by an oncology sub-specialty. Gynecologic oncologists, for example, are trained to treat cancers of the female reproductive system such as those affecting the uterus, cervix, or ovaries, while hematologic oncologists specialize in diagnosing and treating blood cancers (leukemia, lymphoma and multiple myeloma). A neuro-oncologist treats cancers of the brain, spine and peripheral nerves.

Side effects of cancer treatment

Supportive care services describe a broad range of therapies designed to combat side effects and maintain well-being. Treating cancer requires focusing on more than the disease alone; it must also address the pain, fatigue, depression and other side effects that come with it.

Supportive care services include:

·         Nutrition therapy to help prevent malnutrition and reduce side effects

·         Naturopathic support to use natural remedies to boost energy and reduce side effects

·         Oncology rehabilitation to rebuild strength and overcome some of the physical effects of treatment

·         Mind-body medicine to improve emotional well-being through counseling, stress management techniques and support groups

What does the future hold for cancer treatment?

The future of cancer treatment lies in providing patients with an even greater level of personalization. Doctors are beginning to offer treatment options based on the genetic changes occurring in a specific tumor.

An innovative new diagnostic tool, the genomic tumor assessment, examines a patient’s tumor genetically to identify the mechanism that caused the cancer. Genomic tumor assessment may result in a more personalized approach to cancer treatment.

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What is typhoid? Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Vaccination.

What is typhoid?

typhoid fever

       

             

Typhoid is a bacterial infection that can lead to a high fever, diarrhea, and vomiting. ... It is caused by the bacteria Salmonella typhi. The infection is often passed on through contaminated food and drinking water, and it is more prevalent in places where handwashing is less frequent.

Causes

Typhoid is caused by the bacteria S. typhi and spread through food, drinks, and drinking water that are contaminated with infected fecal matter. Washing fruit and vegetables can spread it, if contaminated water is used.

Some people are asymptomatic carriers of typhoid, meaning that they harbor the bacteria but suffer no ill effects. Others continue to harbor the bacteria after their symptoms have gone. Sometimes, the disease can appear again.

People who test positive as carriers may not be allowed to work with children or older people until medical tests show that they are clear.

Symptoms

Symptoms normally begin between 6 and 30 days after exposure to the bacteria.

The two major symptoms of typhoid are fever and rash. Typhoid fever is particularly high, gradually increasing over several days up to 104 degrees Fahrenheit, or 39 to 40 degrees Celsius.

The rash, which does not affect every patient, consists of rose-colored spots, particularly on the neck and abdomen.

Other symptoms can include:

• weakness
• abdominal pain
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• constipation
• headaches

Rarely, symptoms might include confusion, diarrhea, and vomiting, but this is not normally severe.

In serious, untreated cases, the bowel can become perforated. This can lead to peritonitis, an infection of the tissue that lines the inside of the abdomen, which has been reported as fatal in between 5 and 62 percent of cases.

Another infection, paratyphoid, is caused by Salmonella enterica. It has similar symptoms to typhoid, but it is less likely to be fatal.

Diagnosis

Medical and travel history

Your doctor is likely to suspect typhoid fever based on your symptoms and your medical and travel history. But the diagnosis is usually confirmed by identifying Salmonella typhi in a culture of your blood or other body fluid or tissue.

Body fluid or tissue culture

For the culture, a small sample of your blood, stool, urine or bone marrow is placed on a special medium that encourages the growth of bacteria. The culture is checked under a microscope for the presence of typhoid bacteria. A bone marrow culture often is the most sensitive test for Salmonella typhi.

Although performing a culture test is the mainstay for diagnosis, in some instances other testing may be used to confirm a suspected typhoid fever infection, such as a test to detect antibodies to typhoid bacteria in your blood or a test that checks for typhoid DNA in your blood.

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Treatment

The only effective treatment for typhoid is antibiotics. The most commonly used are ciprofloxacin (for non-pregnant adults) and ceftriaxone.

Other than antibiotics, it is important to rehydrate by drinking adequate water.

In more severe cases, where the bowel has become perforated, surgery may be required.

Typhoid antibiotic resistance

As with a number of other bacterial diseases, there is currently concern about the growing resistance of antibiotics to S. typhi.

This is impacting the choice of drugs available to treat typhoid. In recent years, for example, typhoid has become resistant to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and ampicillin.

Ciprofloxacin, one of the key medications for typhoid, is also experiencing similar difficulties. Some studies have found Salmonella typhimurium resistance rates to be around 35 percent.

Prevention

Countries with less access to clean water and washing facilities typically have a higher number of typhoid cases.

PinterestVaccination

Before traveling to a high-risk area, getting vaccinated against typhoid fever is recommended.

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What is hepatitis? Types,Causes,Symptoms,Diagnosed,Treatment Hygiene Vaccines

What is hepatitis?

Hepatitis refers to an inflammatory condition of the liver. It’s commonly caused by a viral infection, but there are other possible causes of hepatitis. These include autoimmune hepatitis and hepatitis that occurs as a secondary result of medications, drugs, toxins, and alcohol. Autoimmune hepatitis is a disease that occurs when your body makes antibodies against your liver tissue.

Your liver is located in the right upper area of your abdomen. It performs many critical functions that affect metabolism throughout your body, including:

• bile production, which is essential to digestion
• filtering of toxins from your body
• excretion of bilirubin (a product of broken-down red blood cells), cholesterol, hormones, and drugs
• breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
• activation of enzymes, which are specialized proteins essential to body functions
• storage of glycogen (a form of sugar), minerals, and vitamins (A, D, E, and K)
• synthesis of blood proteins, such as albumin
• synthesis of clotting factors. 

Types

Viral infections of the liver that are classified as hepatitis include hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E. A different virus is responsible for each type of virally transmitted hepatitis.

Hepatitis A is always an acute, short-term disease, while hepatitis B, C, and D are most likely to become ongoing and chronic. Hepatitis E is usually acute but can be particularly dangerous in pregnant women.

Hepatitis A

Hepatitis A is caused by an infection with the hepatitis A virus (HAV). This type of hepatitis is most commonly transmitted by consuming food or water contaminated by feces from a person infected with hepatitis A.

Hepatitis B

Hepatitis B is transmitted through contact with infectious body fluids, such as blood, vaginal secretions, or semen, containing the hepatitis B virus (HBV). Injection drug use, having sex with an infected partner, or sharing razors with an infected person increase your risk of getting hepatitis B.

It’s estimated by the CDCTrusted Source that 1.2 million people in the United States and 350 million people worldwide live with this chronic disease.

Hepatitis C

Hepatitis C comes from the hepatitis C virus (HCV). Hepatitis C is transmitted through direct contact with infected body fluids, typically through injection drug use and sexual contact. HCV is among the most common bloodborne viral infections in the United States. Approximately 2.7 to 3.9 million AmericansTrusted Source are currently living with a chronic form of this infection.

Hepatitis D

Also called delta hepatitis, hepatitis D is a serious liver disease caused by the hepatitis D virus (HDV). HDV is contracted through direct contact with infected blood. Hepatitis D is a rare form of hepatitis that only occurs in conjunction with hepatitis B infection. The hepatitis D virus can’t multiply without the presence of hepatitis B. It’s very uncommon in the United States.

Hepatitis E

Hepatitis E is a waterborne disease caused by the hepatitis E virus (HEV). Hepatitis E is mainly found in areas with poor sanitation and typically results from ingesting fecal matter that contaminates the water supply. This disease is uncommon in the United States. However, cases of hepatitis E have been reported in the Middle East, Asia, Central America, and Africa, according to the CDCTrusted Source.

Causes

Alcohol and other toxins

Excessive alcohol consumption can cause liver damage and inflammation. This is sometimes referred to as alcoholic hepatitis. The alcohol directly injures the cells of your liver. Over time, it can cause permanent damage and lead to liver failure and cirrhosis, a thickening and scarring of the liver.

Other toxic causes of hepatitis include overuse or overdose of medications and exposure to poisons.

Symptoms

If you have infectious forms of hepatitis that are chronic, like hepatitis B and C, you may not have symptoms in the beginning. Symptoms may not occur until the damage affects liver function.

Signs and symptoms of acute hepatitis appear quickly. They include:

• fatigue
• flu-like symptoms
• dark urine
• pale stool
• abdominal pain
• loss of appetite
• unexplained weight loss
• yellow skin and eyes, which may be signs of jaundice

Chronic hepatitis develops slowly, so these signs and symptoms may be too subtle to notice.

diagnosed

History and physical exam

To diagnose hepatitis, first your doctor will take your history to determine any risk factors you may have for infectious or noninfectious hepatitis.

During a physical examination, your doctor may press down gently on your abdomen to see if there’s pain or tenderness. Your doctor may also feel to see if your liver is enlarged. If your skin or eyes are yellow, your doctor will note this during the exam.

Liver function tests

Liver function tests use blood samples to determine how efficiently your liver works. Abnormal results of these tests may be the first indication that there is a problem, especially if you don’t show any signs on a physical exam of liver disease. High liver enzyme levels may indicate that your liver is stressed, damaged, or not functioning properly.

Other blood tests

If your liver function tests are abnormal, your doctor will likely order other bloodtests to detect the source of the problem. These tests can check for the viruses that cause hepatitis. They can also be used to check for antibodies that are common in conditions like autoimmune hepatitis.

Ultrasound

An abdominal ultrasound uses ultrasound waves to create an image of the organs within your abdomen. This test allows your doctor to take a close at your liver and nearby organs. It can reveal:

• fluid in your abdomen
• liver damage or enlargement
• liver tumors
• abnormalities of your gallbladder

Sometimes the pancreas shows up on ultrasound images as well. This can be a useful test in determining the cause of your abnormal liver function.

Liver biopsy

A liver biopsy is an invasive procedure that involves your doctor taking a sample of tissue from your liver. It can be done through your skin with a needle and doesn’t require surgery. Typically, an ultrasound is used to guide your doctor when taking the biopsy sample.

This test allows your doctor to determine how infection or inflammation has affected your liver. It can also be used to sample any areas in your liver that appear abnormal.

treatment

Treatment options are determined by which type of hepatitis you have and whether the infection is acute or chronic.

Hepatitis A

Hepatitis A usually doesn’t require treatment because it’s a short-term illness. Bed rest may be recommended if symptoms cause a great deal of discomfort. If you experience vomiting or diarrhea, follow your doctor’s orders for hydration and nutrition.

The hepatitis A vaccine is available to prevent this infection. Most children begin vaccination between ages 12 and 18 months. It’s a series of two vaccines. Vaccination for hepatitis A is also available for adults and can be combined with the hepatitis B vaccine.

Hepatitis B

Acute hepatitis B doesn’t require specific treatment.

Chronic hepatitis B is treated with antiviral medications. This form of treatment can be costly because it must be continued for several months or years. Treatment for chronic hepatitis B also requires regular medical evaluations and monitoring to determine if the virus is responding to treatment.

Hepatitis B can be prevented with vaccination. The CDCTrusted Source recommends hepatitis B vaccinations for all newborns. The series of three vaccines is typically completed over the first six months of childhood. The vaccine is also recommended for all healthcare and medical personnel.

Hepatitis C

Antiviral medications are used to treat both acute and chronic forms of hepatitis C. People who develop chronic hepatitis C are typically treated with a combination of antiviral drug therapies. They may also need further testing to determine the best form of treatment.

People who develop cirrhosis (scarring of the liver) or liver disease as a result of chronic hepatitis C may be candidates for a liver transplant.

Currently, there is no vaccination for hepatitis C.

Hepatitis D

No antiviral medications exist for the treatment of hepatitis D at this time. According to a 2013 studyTrusted Source, a drug called alpha interferon can be used to treat hepatitis D, but it only shows improvement in about 25 to 30 percent of people.

Hepatitis D can be prevented by getting the vaccination for hepatitis B, as infection with hepatitis B is necessary for hepatitis D to develop.

Hepatitis E

Currently, no specific medical therapies are available to treat hepatitis E. Because the infection is often acute, it typically resolves on its own. People with this type of infection are often advised to get adequate rest, drink plenty of fluids, get enough nutrients, and avoid alcohol. However, pregnant women who develop this infection require close monitoring and care.

Tips to prevent hepatitis

Hygiene

Practicing good hygiene is one key way to avoid contracting hepatitis A and E. If you’re traveling to a developing country, you should avoid:

• local water
• ice
• raw or undercooked shellfish and oysters
• raw fruit and vegetables

Hepatitis B, C, and D contracted through contaminated blood can be prevented by:

• not sharing drug needles
• not sharing razors
• not using someone else’s toothbrush
• not touching spilled blood

Hepatitis B and C can also be contracted through sexual intercourse and intimate sexual contact. Practicing safe sex by using condoms and dental dams can help decrease the risk of infection. You can find many options available for purchase online.

Vaccines

The use of vaccines is an important key to preventing hepatitis. Vaccinations are available to prevent the development of hepatitis A and B. Experts are currently developing vaccines against hepatitis C. A vaccination for hepatitis E exists in China, but it isn’t available in the United States.

Complications of hepatitis

Chronic hepatitis B or C can often lead to more serious health problems. Because the virus affects the liver, people with chronic hepatitis B or C are at risk for:

• chronic liver disease
• cirrhosis
• liver cancer

When your liver stops functioning normally, liver failure can occur. Complications of liver failure include:

• bleeding disorders
• a buildup of fluid in your abdomen, known as ascites
• increased blood pressure in portal veins that enter your liver, known as portal hypertension
• kidney failure
• hepatic encephalopathy, which can involve fatigue, memory loss, and diminished mental abilities due to the buildup of toxins, like ammonia, that affect brain function
• hepatocellular carcinoma, which is a form of liver cancer
• death

People with chronic hepatitis B and C are encouraged to avoid alcohol because it can accelerate liver disease and failure. Certain supplements and medications can also affect liver function. If you have chronic hepatitis B or C, check with your doctor before taking any new medications

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